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Topics: Law, feminist theories, privacy, sexual autonomy, gender equality, diversity, intersectionality, social discrimination, sexual violence, children’s rights, social media platforms, artificial intelligence, reproductive technologies, sex robotics, deepfakes, data protection, impact assessment.
Disciplines: Law, gender studies, AI
Admission requirements:
This course is an (extracurricular) Honours Class: an elective course within the Honours College programme. Third year students who don’t participate in the Honours College, have the opportunity to apply for a Bachelor Honours Class. Students will be selected based on i.a. their motivation and average grade.
Description:
Technology is not value-neutral, meaning that it can be designed and/or used to pursue certain outcomes and have consequences, be they predictable or not. As such, technology can be considered socially shaped and closely tied to gender dynamics. More precisely, gender becomes embedded in technology and, vice versa, technology can be deployed to reinforce or subvert gender norms. Since the 1970s, feminist discourse has actively engaged in critical discussions around these intersections, responding to the recognition of gender inequality as a pervasive, real-world problem.
Against this backdrop, the question arises: What role does the law play in this complex interplay? Can it be considered a means to perpetuate the structural norms of gender inequality that have traditionally characterized society? Alternatively, can the law be transformed into a proactive arena for driving meaningful social change?
In this course, you will learn the constitutive and mutual relationship between gender and technology through socio-legal lenses. After getting the basics of gender studies and feminist legal theories, we will address some of the most pressing questions, including gender bias of artificial intelligence (AI) systems and online and technology-based violence against women and girls. Additionally, we will link real-life scenarios involving current technologies to the corresponding legal and policy frameworks, exploring how the law plays out in practice. The focus will be on Europe, with potential references to international policy measures. If relevant, national and European case-law will be examined. All the lectures will blend frontal instruction, problem-oriented learning, and gamification. You will receive the course slides after each lecture.
Course objectives:
Upon successful completion of this course, you will be able to:
understand gender studies and feminist theories that have critically assessed various intersections of law and technology;
map new technologies that can shape or be shaped by the social construction of gender;
evaluate the constitutive and mutual relationship between gender and technology through legal lenses;
identify applicable laws, policy, and other measures to the case-studies under scrutiny;
develop intellectual curiosity and forward-looking thinking;
apply gender-sensitive and responsive perspectives to legal analysis.
Programme and timetable:
The sessions of this class will take place on the following Tuesdays from 17.15-19.00:
Session 1: 21 October, 2025
Introduction to law, gender, and technology
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and other technologies in society and its social construction of gender are accelerating. AI systems can be software-based, acting in the virtual world mainly with some physical support, such as voice assistants like Alexa or Google Home. Alternatively, they can be embedded in more complex hardware devices that operate in the environment, such as sex robots. Whilst the current legal framework often lacks a gender-sensitive perspective, the feminist discourse has actively engaged in critical discussions around the design and use of new technologies and their impact on women’s lives and the social construction of gender since the 1970s. Against this backdrop, this introductory lecture aims to familiarise you with the various intersections of law, gender, and technology while providing a solid foundation in the key concepts central to this course. General information about its practical aspects will also be shared.
Specific learning objectives:
Identify the intersections of law, gender, and technology.
Contextualise feminist engagement with technology.
Understand course practicalities and expectations.
Session 2: 28 October, 2025
Setting foundations for feminist scholarship in legal discourse
In this lecture, we will discuss the intricate terrain of feminist theories, delving into seminal and opposing works that have historically informed the legal discourse in Europe. Our journey will begin in the XIX century, when women first began to liaise and denounce the social subordination that they had so far experienced. We will then narrow down the scope to those feminism narratives that have challenged and sought to reshape the very foundations of legal structures (e.g., Catherine McKinnon, Martha Albertson Fineman). At the same time, we will cover some key concepts within gender and feminist studies that are fundamental to critically discuss legal frameworks and reform on new technologies. Special emphasis will put on the social construction of gender, intersectionality, and the violence continuum theories.
Specific learning bbjectives:
Understand the historical evolution of feminist legal thought.
Analyse key concepts in gender and feminist studies.
Apply feminist theories to legal and technological contexts.
Materials:
Walters, M. (2005). Feminism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press – In the lecture, we will cover Chapters 5-9.
Session 3: 4 November, 2025
Reproductive technologies: Social subordination or personal empowerment?
In this lecture, we will examine the complex intersections between reproductive technologies and the social, legal, and policy frameworks that shape them.
We will begin by unpacking the concept of ‘reproduction’ and tracing how feminist discourse has problematised it since the 1970s. Particular attention will be paid to how early reproductive technologies were often developed without regard for women's rights, and how feminist movements have responded by advocating for autonomy, bodily integrity, and equitable access.
Despite these efforts, reproductive technologies continue to provoke controversy. The module will explore the tensions within feminist debates, where such technologies are viewed both as tools of empowerment and as mechanisms of social control. Legal frameworks governing these technologies are critically assessed for their capacity to support or undermine reproductive justice.
To ground theoretical discussions in real-world examples, the module engages with case studies including the design and regulation of the speculum, the contraceptive pill, and in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
Specific learning objectives:
Understand the evolution of feminist engagement with reproductive technologies.
Evaluate the intersection of reproductive technologies with sexual autonomy, privacy, and gender equality.
Assess the effectiveness of existing legal frameworks in providing protection against the potential risks posed by reproductive technologies.
Materials:
Ross, L. J. (2017). Reproductive Justice as Intersectional Feminist Activism. Souls, 19(3), 286–314
Session 4: 11 November, 2025
Femtech and data protection law
Building on the knowledge gained on reproductive rights and justice, this lecture examines the regulation of femtech—a category of digital technologies designed to support women’s health, including menstruation trackers, fertility apps, pregnancy monitoring tools, and menopause support platforms. While these technologies offer the potential to empower users and enhance reproductive autonomy, they also raise pressing concerns around privacy, consent, and data exploitation.
This session focuses on the regulation of femtech from a data protection angle. After an overview of the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (GDPR)—the European Union’s core legal framework for personal data protection—we will explore how Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs) and other measures will apply to femtech contexts. Adopting a feminist perspective, we will evaluate both the potential and the limitations of these measures in safeguarding privacy, promoting autonomy, and advancing gender equality in an intersectional manner.
Specific learning objectives:
Understand femtech and its social implications on people who menstruate.
Analyse basic concepts of the GDPR.
Assess the limitations and ambitions of GDPR measures from a feminist perspective.
Materials:
MacMillan, C. (2022) ‘Monitoring female fertility through “femtech”: The need for a whole-system approach to regulation’. Medical Law Review, 30(3), 410
Session 5 18 November, 2025
Gender considerations in AI (with Eduard Fosch-Villaronga)
Organizations around the globe employ inferential analytics methods to guess user characteristics and preferences. These global social media practices are often opaque and provide detailed information on citizens worldwide, including sensitive attributes such as gender. These methods support ulterior decision-making processes that significantly affect citizens in various ways, such as the automatic refusal of an online credit application, e-recruiting practices without any human intervention, or misdiagnoses of certain diseases. AI systems can also replicate gender stereotypes and biases prevalent in society. In this lecture, we will learn some of the implications of overlooking diversity and inclusion considerations in AI.
Specific learning objectives:
Understand the implications of inferential analytics in AI systems.
Analyze the role of gender in the design and deployment of AI systems.
Evaluate real-world applications of AI systems and their impact on gender.
Materials:
Poulsen, A., Fosch-Villaronga, E., & Søraa, R. A. (2020). Queering machines. Nature Machine Intelligence, 2(3), 152-152, https://www.nature.com/articles/s42256-020-0157-6.
Fosch-Villaronga, E., Poulsen, A., Søraa, R. A., & Custers, B. H. M. (2021) A little bird told me your gender: Gender inferences in social media. Information Processing and Management, 58(3), 102541, 1-13, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102541.
Session 6: 25 November, 2025
Sex robotics at the intersection of criminalisation and the AI Act
This lecture will cover the controversial and futuristic realm of sex robotics, exploring diverse viewpoints and proposing a balanced, legal framework. Despite optimistic expectations for sexual liberalization and empowerment, there are growing conservative concerns about the reproduction and perpetuation of sexual commodification and harmful gender stereotypes. Accordingly, the lecture will critically evaluate calls for a preemptive prohibition, emphasizing the chance to minimize the impact of criminal law on personal liberties and look at other legal and policy measures, such as compliance with the AI Act. In the attempt for a balance between sexual autonomy and gender equality, you will actively participate in a design exercise aimed at fostering critical thinking and policy-driven approaches.
Specific learning objectives:
Understand the diverse viewpoints surrounding sex robotics.
Evaluate legal frameworks and policy measures for regulating sex robotics.
Develop policy-driven approaches through active participation in a design exercise.
Materials:
Rigotti, C. (2020) ‘Sex robots through feminist lenses’. Filosofia, 65 doi.org/10.13135/2704-8195/5076
Session 7: 2 December, 2025
Gender and diversity bias of AI systems in the labour market
In the last decades, AI systems have been launched in the labour market, particularly for human resources (HR) purposes. Whilst their efficiency in processing information far exceeds human capabilities, there is a concerning trend of these AI applications perpetuating gender and other diversity bias, leading to social marginalization, stigmatization, and discrimination on grounds of personal characteristics. Against this backdrop, you will participate in a role play exercise aimed at identifying diversity biases within the hiring process. Key themes covered in this lecture will include the analysis of existing and future legal frameworks, such as the GDPR and anti-discrimination law, to assess their efficacy in addressing diversity bias. Attention will also be paid to alternative, policy and technical measures proposed in the relevant literature (e.g., algorithmic auditing, de-biasing devices).
Specific learning objectives:
Analyse the impact of AI systems on gender and diversity in the labour market.
Examine the effectiveness of existing legal frameworks in addressing gender and diversity bias within AI-driven HR processes.
Explore alternative approaches to mitigating gender and diversity bias in AI systems for HR purposes.
Materials:
Rigotti, C., & Fosch-Villaronga, E. (2024). Fairness, AI & recruitment. Computer Law & Security Review, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.105966
Session 8: 9 December, 2025
Practicum I
This lecture marks the first practicum of the course, offering students a hands-on introduction to different forms of impact assessment relevant to law, technology, and gender. We will examine various types of assessments embedded in existing legal and policy frameworks, including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act). In addition, we will explore models developed by national and international actors—such as the Dutch Fundamental Rights and Algorithm Impact Assessment (FRAIA)—to understand how impact assessments are applied in practice. The session will equip students with the tools to critically engage with these instruments, considering their scope, methodologies, and limitations. Particular attention will be paid to how such assessments address (or fail to address) gendered and intersectional implications in the deployment of emerging technologies.
At the end of the class, students will receive their first assignment, which involves conducting an impact assessment of a case study featuring a technology with distinct gendered implications.
Specific learning objectives:
Understand the purpose, structure, and legal basis of various impact assessments.
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of impact assessments.
Apply an impact assessment methodology.
Materials:
Calvi, A. (2024). Data protection impact assessment in the European Union: A feminist reflection. Computer Law and Security Review.
Session 9: 13 January, 2025
Regulating image-based sexual abuse:
This lecture will examine image-based sexual abuse as part of the broader landscape of online and technology-facilitated violence against women. After gamifying the exploration and comprehension of the various definitions and perspectives, the discussion will focus on legislative and policy measures, including Directive (EU) 2024/1385 on violence against women and domestic violence, along with their ambitions and limitations. Key themes will include the complexities of defining image-based sexual abuse, the role of social media platform responsibility, and the limitations of a criminal law approach. The lecture will also consider diversity, post-colonial, and ethical considerations in curbing online and other abuse.
Specific learning objectives:
Analyse the complexities of defining image-based sexual abuse.
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of Directive (EU) 2024/1385 and related measures.
Assess the intersection of diversity, post-colonial, and ethical considerations in shaping effective strategies to curb image-based sexual abuse.
Materials:
Rigotti, C., McGlynn, C., & Benning, F. (2024). Image-Based Sexual Abuse and EU Law: A Critical Analysis. German Law Journal, 1–22. doi:10.1017/glj.2024.49
Session 10: 20 January, 2026
Pornography and platform governance
In December 2023, the European Commission identified three pornography websites as significant online platforms falling under the scope of the Digital Service Act (DSA). This lecture will focus on the intricate dynamics surrounding the regulation of pornography in the digital era, particularly from a feminist standpoint. Beginning with the distinction between pornography and image-based sexual abuse, the discussion will then move to the DSA and its implications for online platforms and user-generated content. We will examine the delicate balance between various interests and rights, including freedom of expression, sexual autonomy, and privacy, with a particular focus on DSA policy measures such as content moderation.
Specific learning objectives:
Differentiate between pornography and image-based sexual abuse.
Examine the scope and application of the Digital Services Act.
Assess the balance between freedom of expression, sexual autonomy, and privacy in sexually explicit materials online.
Materials:
Shrage, L. (2021). Feminist perspectives on sex markets. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/feminist-sex-markets/
Wilman, F. (2022, December 16). The Digital Services Act (DSA) - An overview. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4304586
Session 11: 27 January, 2026
Balancing girls’ rights in the digital age
Lecture by Christina Pasvanti Gkioka
This lecture will explore the complexities of upholding girls’ rights in the digital environment, beginning with the legal challenges posed by adolescents engaging in consensual sexting and the global fight against child sexual abuse (CSA) online. You will examine the tension between protecting minors from abuse and exploitation while respecting their autonomy in the digital age. The lecture will address the difficulties in balancing girls' rights with public and private interests, particularly through the lens of EU legislation and international legal instruments. Key issues include the risks of coercion, the potential harm of sharing explicit content, and the limitations of current laws, with particular emphasis on the enforcement challenges related to self-generated material. Students will critically assess whether existing legal frameworks can adequately address this evolving issue or if new approaches are needed.
Specific learning objectives:
Explaining sexting and online CSA.
Examining EU and international legislation that address sexting and CSA.
Evaluating the dominant balance between preventing online CSA and protecting minors from unnecessary criminalisation.
Materials:
Witting, S. (2019). Regulating bodies: The moral panic of child sexuality in the digital era. Critical Quarterly for Legislation and Law, 102(1), 5-28
Sessions 12 to 14: 3 and 10 February, as well as 3 March 2026
Practicum (II)
These lectures constitute the second practicum of the course, providing students with a hands-on introduction to the work of civil society organisations (CSOs) in the field of women's and girls’ rights online. Particular emphasis will be placed on fundamental rights advocacy and the development of preventive and protective measures, such as awareness-raising campaigns, educational tools, and legal reform proposals. A key focus will be on policy briefs—concise, targeted documents designed to inform and influence policy decisions. Students will learn how to structure and draft effective policy briefs, including how to tailor messages for specific audiences and leverage evidence-based arguments.
At the end of the first lecture, students will be divided into groups and assigned a real-world case study, on the basis of which they will develop their own policy brief. Topics may include, for example, content moderation and notice-and-action mechanisms under the Digital Services Act (DSA). As the aim is for the briefs to be of potential practical use to the partnering CSO, the second lecture will be dedicated to peer and practitioner feedback, supporting students in refining their proposals for relevance, clarity, and impact.
Specific learning objectives:
Understand the role of preventive measures and policy advocacy in promoting women and girls’ rights online.
Develop a policy brief that addresses a real-world case study.
Evaluate and refine policy proposals through peer and expert feedback.
Deadline final assignment: January 13, 2026 and 17 March, 2026
Location:
TBA
Reading list:
See above, mentioned in the course programme.
Course load and teaching method:
This course carries a value of 10 ECTS, corresponding to a total workload of 280 hours:
Seminars: 12 seminars of 2 hours = 24 hours
Seminar preparation and revision: 3 x 12 seminars = 36 hours
Impact assessment preparation: 72 hours
Policy brief feedback sessions: 4 hours
Policy brief preparation: 144 hours
Assessment methods:
50% Impact assessment:
At the end of the lecture on Tuesday, 9 December 2025, students will be assigned a case study for the completion of an individual impact assessment. The task involves identifying and analysing the potential risks posed by a specific technology to the right to gender equality, as well as to other intersecting fundamental rights. While the technology in question will not have been explicitly covered in class, students will be expected to apply the socio-legal tools and frameworks acquired throughout the first part of the course. The final submission is due by Tuesday, 13 January 2026, at 16:00 CET.
Assessment criteria will emphasise the clarity of legal reasoning, the integration of gender-sensitive and responsive analysis, the identification of normative tensions, and the overall coherence of the proposed assessment.50% Policy brief:
At the end of the lecture on Tuesday, 3 February 2025, students will be divided into groups and assigned a real-world case study for the development of a policy brief. This task requires students to apply legal, socio-technical, and policy knowledge to produce a concise and actionable document that addresses a gendered issue in digital rights or online regulation. A preliminary table of contents is due on Monday, 9 February 2026 at 16:00 CET and will be reviewed in class the following day. An intermediate draft must be submitted by Tuesday, 24 February 2026 at 16:00 CET, and will be discussed during a feedback session on Tuesday, 03 March 2026, involving both peer review and practitioner input. The final version of the policy brief is due on Tuesday, 17 March 2026 at 16:00 CET.
Assessment criteria will emphasise the quality of analysis, clarity and persuasiveness of the argument, relevance and feasibility of the proposed recommendations, effective collaboration, and responsiveness to feedback.
Brightspace and uSis:
Brightspace will be used in this course. Upon admission students will be enrolled in Brightspace by the teaching administration.
Please note: students are not required to register through uSis for the Bachelor Honours Classes. Your registration will be done centrally.
Application process:
Submitting an application for this course is possible from Monday 25 August up to and including Sunday 7 September 2025 23:59 through the link on the Honours Academy student website.
Note: students don’t have to register for the Bachelor Honours Classes in uSis. The registration is done centrally before the start of the class.
Contact:
Carlotta Rigotti, eLaw Center for Law and Digital Technologies (Leiden University)
c.rigotti@law.leidenuniv.nl