Admission requirements
Only students of the MSc Crisis and Security Management can take this course.
Description
Contemporary security threats increasingly include adversary acts that remain below threshold of armed conflict but are more aggressive than what can be counted among normal diplomatic competition. More and more operations take place in this contested space that can be designated as the ‘grey zone.’ From sabotage operations targeting infrastructure to information campaigns and proxy-enabled coercion, grey zone warfare is a defining feature of 21st-century geopolitics. These threats exist alongside other (security) challenges like, war, terrorism and climate change, but for European democracies, these ambiguous threats are difficult to counter, especially when adversaries deliberately exploit legal thresholds, democratic norms, and institutional constraints.
It is the need of democratic societies to act within these constrains that this course will focus on. It will provide a comprehensive examination of grey zone warfare through the lens of European security, with particular emphasis on the intersection of strategy, international law, and democratic governance. Students will explore foundational concepts and definitions and study the full spectrum of grey zone tactics, from cyber operations and information warfare to economic coercion, proxy forces, and lawfare. We will examine how international legal frameworks, including jus ad bellum and international humanitarian law apply (or fail to apply) to operations designed to remain ambiguous. Moreover, the course will pay attention to why liberal democracies face structural vulnerabilities in countering grey zone aggression. Through analysis of domestic legal frameworks, particularly those of the Netherlands and EU, students will grapple with the constraints democratic societies face in responding effectively while upholding rule of law and civil liberties. The course examines both defensive resilience measures and active counter-strategies, evaluating their effectiveness and ethical and legal limits.
Combining theoretical frameworks, legal analysis, and real-world case studies - including ongoing hybrid campaigns against Europe - the course culminates in a crisis simulation where students apply their knowledge to navigate grey zone challenges in real-time. Students will emerge equipped to analyse contemporary security threats and design responses that balance effectiveness with democratic values.
Course Objectives
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
Define and critically analyze grey zone warfare as a strategic concept within the European security context;
Apply international legal frameworks to grey zone operations and evaluate their effectiveness and limitations;
Identify, categorize, and assess the full spectrum of grey zone tactics employed by state actors;
Analyze the structural vulnerabilities of liberal democracies and the constraints they face in responding to grey zone threats;
Evaluate domestic legal frameworks (particularly Dutch and EU) and their adequacy for addressing grey zone challenges;
Design comprehensive counter-grey zone strategies that balance effectiveness with democratic values and legal constraints;
Apply theoretical and legal knowledge to real-world cases through structured analysis and simulation.
Timetable
On the right side of programme front page of the studyguide you will find links to the website and timetables, uSis and Brightspace.
Mode of Instruction
This course consists of seven lectures of three hours each. The total study load amounts to 140 hours: 21 of these equal contact hours, whereas the remaining 119 hours will be devoted to self-study (i.e., readings, completing the course assignments, etc.)
Assessment method
Group assignment
30% of final grade
Resit is not possible
Grade must be compensated in case of a fail (grade < 5.50)
Final exam
70% of final grade
Grade cannot be compensated, a 5.50 is required to pass
Resit is possible
Resit take the same form
The re-sit assignment will test the same course objectives, but will be different in terms of topics, cases or substance. The calculated overall course grade must be at least 5.50 in order to pass the course. If the calculated overall course grade is lower than 5.50, students are also permitted to resit the 70% exam.
Reading list
A selection of books and articles, to be announced on Brightspace.
Registration
Please note, registration for block 4 electives will be organised by the OSC in a different way from the regular course registration for semester 2. More information about this will follow in the beginning of semester 2.
Please note: Registration for the resit of an exam (and exam) is mandatory, this has to be done by the student and can be done from Monday 4 May 2026 until 10 days before the exam. Until 5 days before the exam you can email OSC and fill in a form.
Contact
dr. Ernst Dijxhoorn e.e.a.dijxhoorn@fgga.leidenuniv.nl